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Soils and sustainable forestry
Boyle, J.R., and R.F. Powers (Eds.) 2001. Forest Soils and Ecosystem Sustainability. Elsevier, New York. 474 p.
Beginning in 1958 and every 5 years thereafter, a North American Forest Soils Conference was held on the role of soil in forest management. This symposium routinely draws scientists and practitioners from throughout the world. It is sponsored by the four major professional and scientific societies for forestry and forest soils in the U.S. and Canada (SAF, CIF, SSSA, CSSS). The latest in the series, the 9th North American Forest Soils Conference, was held at Tahoe City in 1998, and Forest Soils and Ecosystem Sustainability is its product. Authors from a half dozen nations presented manuscripts for peer review. Of these, 31 were accepted for publication both as a special issue of Forest Ecology and Management (Vol. 138, Nos. 1-3, 2000) and as this hardbound volume. At $194.50 per copy, this book is not for everyone. But as a state-of-the-art reference for the next 5 years, and considering many of the challenges facing modern forestry, it belongs on certain desks. Chapters of particular interest to members of the SCIFMRC include "Soil landscape resource assessment for plantations..." (R.N. Thwaits and B.K. Slater), "Effects of extensive forest management on soil productivity" (D.F. Grigal), "Sustained productivity in intensively managed forest plantations" (T.R. Fox), and "Soil quality standards and guidelines for forest sustainability in northwestern North America" (D.Page-Dumroese and others). A full list of contents can be seen at Elsevier's web site http://www.elsevier.nl/inca/publications/store/6/2/2/2/1/1/index.htt.
Are we sustaining yields?
Powers, R.F. 2001. Assessing potential sustainable wood yield. InP Julian Evans (Ed.) The Forests Handbook, Vol. 2. Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management. Blackwell Science, Ltd. Oxford, U.K.
Unprecedented demands are placed on world forests to produce and sustain many values. Chief among them is wood supply, and concerns are rising globally about the ability of forests to meet increasing needs. This book chapter reviews the principles of sustainable yield and how to know if you've achieved it. Sections move from such topics as Sustainability of what, and for whom?, through concepts and definitions of site quality, yield, sustained yield, rotation, and productivity, to distinctions between actual productivity and inherent potential productivity. Central to all of this is an understanding of how forests partition biomass and nutrients above and below ground from stand establishment through senescence and how this is influenced by management. Management topics include the question of nutrient depletion and soil disturbance relative to increasing intensity of harvest. The final section covers both traditional and more innovative approaches for assessing a site's ability to sustain wood production over multiple rotations. Reprints of this book chapter can be obtained by request to Co-op manager Gary Fiddler.
Herbicide effects on soil microbiology
Busse, M.D.; A.W. Ratcliff; C.J. Shestak; R.F. Powers. 2001. Glyphosate toxicity and the effects of long-term vegetation control on soil microbial communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 33: 1777-1789.
One concern facing pesticide use in forestry is that such chemicals may be detrimental to nontarget organisms. Glyphosate is one of the most widely prescribed herbicides because of its effectivness against many weed species and because of its mild effect on conifers. In California, glyphosate is applied to some 100 thousand acres of forest land annually. Glyphosate works by blocking the shikimic acid pathway--the means by which plants synthesize amino acids. This biochemical pathway is not found in animals, but is common to plants and microorganisms. Thus, concerns have been raised that compounds like glyphosate may be detrimental to beneficial soil com-munities of bacteria and fungi.
To test this hypothesis, Matt Busse of the PSW Research Station in Redding compared varying levels of glyphosate on soil microbial communities found in a variety of ponderosa pine plantations across a range of soil types and site qualities in the Garden of Eden network. When tested against bacteria and fungi grown on an artificial medium (agar), glyphosate inhibited all expressions of microbial activity, and the higher the glyphosate concentration, the stronger the inhibition. However, when these and even greater concentrations were applied to bacteria and fungi in plantation soils, results were reversed. All measures of soil microbial activity tested (basal respiration, metabolic quotient, total count, diversity measured by Shannon Weaver Index, N mineralization, and the ability to process varying forms of organic carbon) revealed no detrimental effect of glyphosate when applied at manufacturer's recommended concen-trations. In fact, applying glyphosate at up to 100X normal field concentrations led to increasing microbial activity as measured by soil respiration.
Differences between artificial media and field soils are believed due to the polar nature of the glyphosate molecule and its adsorption to soil particles. This suggests that experiments using soil-free media have limited ecological significance to field con-ditions in forestry. Findings support the conclusion that glyphosate has no consequential effect on soil microbial communities in ponderosa pine plantations. Preliminary findings from this study were published in the Proceedings of the 21st Annual Forest Vegetation Management Conference (2000). Reprints of the journal paper cited above can be obtained by request to Co-op manager Gary Fiddler.
TI: Bracken control with dicamba.
SO: 1970, Extr. from Rep. For. Res. For. Comm., Lond. 1969/80 1970 (82).
PY: 1970
LA: English
AB: [Cf. F.A. 31 No. 4718.] Residue from winter applications of dicamba has previously caused some damage to the succeeding crop, so autumn pre-planting treatments were tested. Some damage to spring-planted crops still resulted. Abies grandis suffered heavy losses, but Larix decidua, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and Pinus nigra var. calabrica recovered well after superficial damage. Pinus sylvestris and Picea sitchensis were not affected.
TI: Douglas-Fir nursery stock survival by age classes.
AU: Edgren,-JW
SO: 1968, Repr. from Proceedings, Western Forest Nursery Council 1968 (52-56b).
PY: 1968
LA: English
AB: A comparison of the survival of 1 + 0, 2 + 0, 3 + 0, 1 + 1 and 2 + 1 stock from two nurseries (three seed sources) planted in autumn 1966 and spring 1967 at various sites at 3000, 3500 and 4000 ft. alt. There were no consistent differences between age class and altitude. The poorer survival of spring- vs. autumn-planted stock is not considered typical, and a further year's planting will be analysed.
TI: Influence of seedling size on growth, survival and cost of growing Douglas Fir.
AU: Smith,-JHG; Walters,-J
SO: 1965, Res. Note Fac. For. Univ. B.C. No. 50, 1965. pp. 7. 6 refs.
PY: 1965
LA: English
AB: Height of 3 + 0 seedlings, which varied from 3 to 32 in., had no influence on growth during the first year after planting, but was highly correlated with it in the second year. Mortality in the two years after planting of 1600 seedlings was significantly greater in the very short and very tall seedlings than in the medium ones. Time taken to plant increased significantly with increasing size. Survival of autumn-planted seedlings (65.4%) was significantly poorer than that of spring-planted (86.0%). Pruning roots to a maximum of 10 in. had no influence on either survival or growth. The optimum seedling size was ca. 15 in. high with root-collar diameter ca. 0.2 in. From authors' summary.
TI: Artificial shade improves survival of planted Douglas Fir and White Fir seedlings.
AU: Adams,-RS; Ritchey,-JR; Todd,-WG
SO: 1966, St. For. Note Calif. Div. For. No. 28, 1966. pp. 11. 11 refs.
PY: 1966
LA: English
AB: Describes five studies of the effect of shading 1 and 2-year seedlings of Pseudotsuga taxifolia and Abies concolor with wooden shingles inserted on the S.S.W. side of each plant after planting, in spring or autumn, on four types of site in California with climates ranging from mild coastal (a) to severe inland valley (b). In all cases, survival was significantly increased by the shade (by up to 2-3 times), the increase being greatest in (b). The shingles, 5-7 in. wide, were inserted 4-5 in. from the base of the seedling, with 8-10 in. above ground, and slanted so that the top was directly over the seedling.
TI: Effects of prolonged exposure of roots on survival of 2-0 Douglas Fir seedlings.
AU: Hermann,-RK
SO: 1964, J. For. 62 (6), 1964 (401-3). 3 refs.
PY: 1964
LA: English
AB: Roots of seedlings lifted at various seasons were exposed at controlled temperature and humidity for 5-120 min. before planting. Adverse effects varied chiefly with season of lifting and length of storage. Trees lifted in winter withstood longer exposure than did those lifted in autumn or spring. Extending the length of storage appeared to increase susceptibility. With one exception, gain in weight of surviving seedlings was markedly reducedbyexposuresof>30 min.
TI: Effects of lifting date and storage on 2 + 0 Douglas Fir and Noble Fir.
AU: Winjum,-JK
SO: 1963, J. For. 61 (9), 1963 (648-54). 15 refs.
PY: 1963
LA: English
AB: Near Olympia, Wash., 2 + 0 Pseudotsuga taxifolia and Abies procera were lifted at 4-week intervals from Oct. 1960 to May 1961, half the stock (a) being planted out immediately and half (b) stored 4 weeks at 2°C. before planting. In (a), survival of both species was > 90% for most lifting dates. In (b), average survival was 98% for P. taxifolia lifted in Nov.-March and 87% for A. procera lifted in Oct.-Feb.; storage in autumn, and especially spring, reduced survival. Stored seedlings produced fewer roots in autumn and late spring than unstored. Non-reducing sugar content was low in autumn and late spring, with a peak in February; use of this as an index of favourable lifting dates is suggested. From author's summary.
TI: Mycorrhizae and survival of Douglas Fir seedlings.
AU: Wright,-E
SO: 1964, Res. Note (For. Mgmt. Res.) Ore. For. Res. Lab. No. 50, 1964. pp. 12. 14 refs.
PY: 1964
LA: English
AB: A study, concurrent with Lavender's [cf. F.A. 26 No. 3633] of the relationship between field survival and abundance of mycorrhizae on Douglas Fir seedlings at lifting time. During 1959-61, nursery seedlings were lifted every 2 weeks from late Aug. to early Dec. and in Feb., and 100 were planted immediately in each of two areas; survival was measured every autumn. For each group lifted, 5-10 seedlings were examined and the number of ectotrophic mycorrhizae counted and classified by depth of occurrence, colour and type; a small, variable % was identified as Cenococcum graniforme. The % of roots bearing mycorrhizae (m.r. %) was calculated and compared with survival %; no direct correlation was found, but with m.r. % _ 60 improved survival is indicated. The influence of other environmental and edaphic factors is briefly discussed.
TI: Reforestation studies 1961.
SO: 1962, [1962?] pp. 29. 21 refs. Division of Forestry, Resources Agency, Department of Conservation [,Sacramento].
PY: 1962
LA: English
AB: Summarizes preliminary reports of various seedling establishment studies in California, chiefly on Douglas Fir, Ponderosa Pine, Abies concolor, Sequoia gigantea and Pinus radiata, including the effect of different methods of site preparation, different types of logging, planting and sowing (including tarred-paper containers, and comparisons of seed-spots, drilling, broadcast sowing and natural seed-fall), planting-stock physiology (including age and nursery treatment, as well as the use of fertilizers, growth regulators, and transpiration inhibitors), herbicides, rodent control, etc. Wide variability of results and inadequate experimental designs still hamper evaluation of earlier studies. Nursery fertilizing failed to improve field survival. Ponderosa Pine I + 0 survived as well as 2 + 0 and 2 + 1 stock; Abies concolor survival was rather poor. [Cf. F.A. 23 No. 1955.]
TI: The effect of month of planting upon survival and growth of Douglas-Fir and Scots Pine seedlings.
AU: Walters,-J; Soos,-J
SO: 1961, Res. Pap. Fac. For. Univ. B.C. No. 38, 1961. pp. 12. 13 refs.
PY: 1961
LA: English
AB: A study was made to test the possibility of extending the planting season, e.g. by beginning earlier in the autumn and going on later in the spring. Results are discussed in terms of mortality and height growth of seedlings planted throughout the growing season. With favourable weather and strict adherence to certain principles, the planting period could be extended without restricting growth or survival.
TI: Getting growth on south slopes. Using mustard as a nurse crop.
AU: Chilcote,-W
SO: 1957, Timberman 1957 58 98), (56, 58).
PY: 1957
LA: English
AB: Research over a period of 4 years has established the beneficial effect of a cover crop of brown mustard (Brassica juncea) on direct sowings of Douglas Fir on burnt-over slopes in Oregon. The recommended technique is to sow mustard from a helicopter at 3-5 lb./acre in the autumn after a fire; Douglas Fir seed of suitable provenance, treated with a rodent repellent, should also be sown from the air at 3 lb./acre in the same autumn or winter. The mustard germinates in a few days and effectively prevents erosion; it should be sprayed in early spring, before it is in full bloom and before the rains cease, with 2,4-D at 1/2 or 3/4 lb./acre in water solution. Costs have not been worked out, but it is believed that the work, including spraying with 2,4-D, cost of seed, sowing etc. will be substantially less than hand planting with 2 + 0 Douglas Fir nursery stock. The results of experiments on exposed burnt-over slopes showed that ca. 3 times as many Douglas Fir seedlings germinated and began to grow under a nurse crop of mustard as on a bare plot; surface soil temperature under mustard was reduced by as much as 20°F. In years of plentiful summer rainfall, or when the mustard matured and dried up before the soil moisture was depleted, more seedlings survived under mustard than in the open. When mustard growth persisted into a dry growing season, it robbed the seedlings of moisture, killing most of them. When the mustard was sprayed with 2,4-D in the spring, it was quickly killed, leaving dead shade and reducing competition for moisture; in this case the number of Douglas Fir seedlings surviving was substantially greater than under unsprayed mustard or on bare plots. Other cover crops were tested but were not as satisfactory as brown mustard, which has the advantages of abundant cheap seed, rapid germination without seedbed preparation, and ability to grow rapidly and mature early in spring. Further, it is easy to kill, does not spread and become a noxious weed, and when dead does not increase fire hazard (it is singularly resistant to fire and difficult to burn).
TI: Coniferous seedling survival.
AU: Stone,-EC
SO: 1955, California Agriculture, Berkeley 1955 9 (2), (7,15).
PY: 1955
LA: English
AB: In the hope of determining the cause of unexplained mortality in nursery stock, seedlings (2 + 0 and 1 + 1) of Pinus jeffreyi, P. ponderosa, Abies concolor, A. magnifica, and Pseudotsuga taxifolia were lifted in the autumn, their roots pruned to a length of 5 in., planted in 1-gal. cans and kept in a greenhouse under favourable conditions. There were 5 samples of 10 each for each species. After 60 days they were washed out, for observation of their root development, replanted in the same cans and their survival observed after another 120 days. The seedlings all appeared to be healthy 60 days after planting, but when washed out of the cans a considerable number (ranging from 16% for P. ponderosa to 40% for P. taxifolia) showed failure in root development, and at the end of the further 120 days most of these were dead. The tops were dry and brown, and the needles had started to fall. Close examination of the seedlings that produced roots and of those that failed to do so, did not reveal any external morphological differences.
TI: Reduce fire hazards in ponderosa pine by thinning.
AU: Scott-J
AD: Systems for Environmental Management, Residential Forest Management, Missoula, Montana, USA.
SO: Fire-Management-Notes. 1998, 58: 1, 20-25.
PY: 1998
LA: English
AB: Four rectangular 2.4 ha treatment areas planted with ponderosa pine [Pinus ponderosa] and Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] with an understorey of grasses, snowberry, kinnikinnick, ninebark, and serviceberry were established in the Ninemile Ranger District, Montana, USA. These stands had not been subject to burning since approx. 1900. Three thinning treatments to reduce fire hazard were developed with a second objective of improving forest health while maintaining the aesthetic values of the forest. Treatment (1): minimum impact, the stand was decreased by 30% by removing small, least healthy trees and those with low-hanging crowns to 23 m2/ha of basal area. Slash was piled and burnt after drying. Treatment (2): revenue production, stand density was reduced by 50% by harvesting trees of all sizes. This produced pulp logs and medium sawlogs; total harvest volume was 30.3 m3/ha. Slash was piled and burnt after drying. Treatment (3): forest restoration, stand density was reduced 50% by removal of the smallest, weakest trees. Total harvest volume was 21.0 m3/ha. Slash was spread evenly in the stand to allow nutrients to recycle. After the slash had dried for one summer it was broadcast-burned in the autumn. Treatment (1) was favoured for aesthetic value and was moderately effective in reducing the fire hazard. Treatment (2) generated the largest income ($2637/ha), was effective at reducing the fire hazard and ranked high aesthetically. Treatment (3) was the most effective in reducing fire hazard and netted $1134/ha. However, aesthetic quality was low.
TI: Role of Lammas growth in recovery of Douglas-fir seedlings from deer browsing, as influenced by weed control, fertilization, and seed source.
AU: Roth-BE; Newton-M
AD: Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
SO: Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research. 1996, 26: 6, 936-944; 76 ref.
PY: 1996
LA: English
LS: French
AB: This study examined the effects of weed control, nitrogen fertilizer, and seed source on Lammas growth (second flushing) in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings on 3 sites in the Oregon Coast Range. It also assessed the occurrence of deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) browsing as related to these silvicultural treatments and examined the role of Lammas growth in seedling recovery and escape from deer browsing. Seedlings (averaging 54 cm tall, 6 mm diameter at 15 cm above ground) were planted in February 1992, and measured at the time of planting and in autumn 1992 and 1993. Complete weed control with hexazinone (annual applications + spot treatments as necessary) significantly increased the occurrence of Lammas growth. Nitrogen fertilizer (220 kg/ha urea) decreased Lammas growth significantly, at least in part by favouring weed growth. Lammas growth was not influenced by seed source (genetically improved from a seed orchard or local wild stock). The increased Lammas growth associated with weed control mediated the effects of deer browsing. Although multiple-year browsing occurred more commonly on weeded than unweeded seedlings, after two growing seasons weeded seedlings that were repeatedly browsed were twice as large as unbrowsed, unweeded seedlings. On one site, stock of wild origin was more heavily browsed than that from a seed orchard.
TI: Field performances of several tree species and stock types planted in montane forests of coastal British Columbia.
AU: Arnott-JT; Pendl-FT
AD: Canadian Forest Service, Pacific and Yukon Region, Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8Z 1M5.
SO: Information-Report -Pacific-and-Yukon-Region,-Canadian-Forest-Service. 1994, No. BC-X-347, viii + 45 pp.; 47 ref.
PB: Pacific and Yukon Region, Pacific Forestry Centre, Forestry Canada; Victoria; Canada
PY: 1994
LA: English
LS: French
AB: Planting trials were established at sites within the Mountain Hemlock and montane Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zones. Six test areas were chosen within each zone. Amabilis fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (A. procera), yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) were the species selected for planting in the Mountain Hemlock zone. In addition to Abies amabilis and A. procera, western white pine (Pinus monticola), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were planted in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone. Plug (PSB 211), plug transplant and bareroot stock types were used for the eight species across both zones. Seedlings were planted during the autumn (September/October) and spring (May) in each of two successive years: 1978-79 and 1979-80. Survival, growth and tree form 13 years after planting were used as indicators of the reliability (a combination of tree survival and form) and productivity of the planting treatment combinations. Noble fir and amabilis fir were the most reliable species in the Mountain Hemlock zone; i.e. these species have average survival rates higher than 80% and few form defects. Yellow cedar crowns were badly broken by snow, which reduced the reliability of this species in the early years of plantation establishment. The growth, survival and form of mountain hemlock ranked between that of the true firs and yellow cedar. Noble fir was by far the most productive species in the Mountain Hemlock zone. Within the Coastal Western Hemlock zone no single species demonstrated a superior combination of productivity or reliability. Douglas fir, western hemlock and western redcedar were good species in the lower elevations of the zone, whereas noble fir and amabilis fir were better species at the upper elevational limits of the zone. Western white pines should be avoided until rust-resistant seed sources are available. Little variation was found among the three planting stock options and even less between the two planting seasons. Plug transplant stock was more reliable than bareroot or plug stock; productivity ranked from greatest to least in the following order within both zones: plug transplant, bareroot and plug stock. This ranking among stock types may well change as different stock types are developed. However, the relative size and design differences among stock types, no matter when they become available, will always have an effect on the ultimate reliability and productivity of planted trees. Autumn planting gave significantly lower survival in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone only.
TI: Maturation in Douglas-fir. II. Maturation characteristics of genetically matched Douglas-fir seedlings, rooted cuttings and tissue culture plantlets during and after 5 years of field growth.
AU: Ritchie-GA; Duke-SD; Timmis-R
AD: Weyerhaeuser Company, G.R. Staebler Forest Resources Research Center, 505 North Pearl Street, Centralia, WA 98531, USA.
SO: Tree-Physiology. 1994, 14: 11, 1261-1275; 30 ref.
PY: 1994
LA: English
AB: Seedlings, rooted cuttings from juvenile stock plants, and cotyledon-derived tissue culture plantlets were propagated from several coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) full-sib families so that the rooted cuttings and plantlets were clonally identical. The stock types (seedlings, rooted cuttings and plantlets) were planted in the field (near Porter, Washington) in spring 1987. In autumn 1991, after five complete growing seasons, the plants were measured and these values compared to maturation 'markers' previously identified for Douglas fir. Nodal branch lengths and nodal branch diameters decreased in the order seedlings > rooted cuttings > plantlets. The decreases were about 21% for nodal branch lengths and 24% for nodal branch diameters. Seedlings carried significantly more total branches (nodal + internodal) than the other two stock types. Height growth was similar for the three stock types, but plantlet height increment was beginning to decrease during the fourth year. It is concluded that vegetative propagules of Douglas fir exhibited traits of mature trees. These were particularly marked in the cotyledon-derived plantlets.
TI: Morphological and water-stress characteristics of three Douglas-fir stocktypes in relation to seedling performance under different soil moisture conditions.
AU: Rose-R; Gleason-JF; Atkinson-M
AD: Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
SO: New-Forests. 1993, 7: 1, 1-17; 32 ref.
PY: 1993
LA: English
AB: Phenology, morphology, frost hardiness and response to moisture stress were examined for three Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stocktypes grown from the same seed lot in a nursery near Olympia, Washington, USA. The types were mini-plug R transplants (MPT), 1+1 bareroot transplants (1+1), and 2+0 bareroot seedlings (2+0). In the late summer and autumn before lifting, 2+0 seedlings set bud before 1+1 seedlings and 1+1 seedlings before MPT seedlings. The 2+0 seedlings appeared slowest to acquire frost hardiness and seemed to deharden most rapidly in spring. Although 2+0 seedlings were taller than the MPT stocktype, MPT and 2+0 seedlings were relatively similar in other morphological respects, but 1+1 seedlings were much larger. All stocktypes were potted on 20 January 1989, placed in a greenhouse, and subjected to 39%, 18%, 16%, or 6% soil water-content (% dry weight) until the end of the experiment in mid-July 1990. The largest decrease in pre-dawn xylem water potential occurred with 16% and 6% soil water content; pre-dawn xylem water potential averaged over the three stocktypes generally declined 219% from low to high soil moisture stress. The 1+1 seedlings used more water than the other two stocktypes, and at maximum soil moisture stress, plant moisture stress increased in the order MPT < 2+0 < 1+1. During the 6-month greenhouse experiment, the larger 1+1 stocktype showed the most absolute growth, but the smaller stocktypes grew more on a relative scale. Growth of the stocktypes appeared to be related to differences in morphology and water-use patterns as the seedlings competed for available water within each pot. The results show that MPT seedlings, a new stocktype, performed as well as the more traditionally used 2+0 and 1+1 seedlings and that stocktype selection is important in reforestation efforts.
TI: Effect of fall planting date on survival and growth of three coniferous species of container seedlings in northern Idaho.
AU: Adams-DL; Graham-RT; Wenny-DL; Mohamed-Daa
AD: Department of Forest Resources, University of Idaho College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Range Science, Moscow, ID, USA.
SO: Tree-Planters'-Notes. 1991, 42: 2, 52-55; 4 ref.
PY: 1991
LA: English
AB: One-yr-old seedlings of Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, Pinus monticola and P. ponderosa were planted on a uniform site at 2 wk intervals from late August to early November 1988. Seedling survival and growth was assessed 6-weekly during the 1989 growing season. Planting date did not affect first-yr survival, which was 95-100%. Although the differences were not significant, the earliest planting date produced the largest seedlings at the end of August 1989. It is concluded that these species can be planted in early autumn if soil moisture is satisfactory.
TI: Physiological indicators of tolerance to cold storage in Sitka spruce and Douglas-fir seedlings.
AU: McKay-HM; Mason-WL
AD: Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, UK.
SO: Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research. 1991, 21: 6, 890-901; 33 ref.
PY: 1991
LA: English
LS: French
AB: Two-year-old transplants and undercuts of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were cold-stored (1°C) for 1 to 7 months ending in April 1989. Their physiological and morphological condition at lifting and after storage was assessed and related to survival and height increment after one growing season on a reafforestation site at Broxa, UK. The physiological assessments made from October to April at lifting were (1) root growth potential (RGP), (2) tolerance of fine roots to chronic cold, (3) shoot and root mitotic index, (4) root elongation and (5) electrolyte leakage from the shoot and roots. Shoot cold hardiness was assessed from October to mid-December. The seasonal changes in these parameters and the effect of species and undercutting treatments are described. RGP values of freshly lifted plants were low in autumn and increased to a plateau in December to February. Douglas fir had a consistently lower RGP than Sitka spruce and the RGP of transplants were lower than the RGP of undercuts. After cold storage, plant vigour was assessed by root growth potential and shoot and root membrane integrity. Cold storage reduced the RGP of all stock. Membrane integrity of the fine roots was a very good indicator of survival. There was a highly significant, negative correlation between the rate of electrolyte leakage (indicating membrane damage) and survival (p <0.001, r = -0.90).
TI: Analysis of early mortality of Douglas-fir seedlings in postharvest plantings in northwestern California.
AU: Waters-WE; DeMars-CJ Jr.; Cobb-FW Jr.
AD: Department of Forestry & Resource Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA.
SO: Forest-Science. 1991, 37: 3, 802-826; 19 ref.
PY: 1991
LA: English
AB: A life table study was conducted of injury and mortality of Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] seedlings in 44 plantations on public and private lands in Humboldt and Del Norte Counties, California. The areas were planted in late autumn 1983 or early spring 1984. Field examinations were made 3 times each year in 1984, 1985 and 1986. Dead and dying seedlings were lifted and examined in the laboratory. Real mortality (the number of seedlings found dead at each examination time as a percentage of the number planted minus missing seedlings) and apparent mortality (the number of dead seedlings found at each examination time as a percentage of the number alive at the beginning of that time interval) were recorded in life table format for the 9 time intervals (3 in each year). Seedling real mortality per time interval in the different ownerships varied from 0 to 35.0%, and totalled 14.0 to 70.7% for the three years. Highest mean mortality occurred from late spring to autumn in the first year. Trend analyses, using a curvilinear regression model, showed significant differences in rates of mortality among ownerships. The performance of containerized and bare root seedlings was similar. Conclusions from the life table analyses, using a two-step modelling process, are presented. Variations and covariations in mortality associated with intervals 2 and 3 were most important in determining total variation in survival in the 3-year period; intervals 1, 4, 7 and 9 were also critical in some cases. Planting- and weather-related factors were most important in intervals 1-4; disease, insects and vertebrates (alone and jointly) were more important in the second and third years. Substantial covariations in mortality among the time intervals indicated carryover effects; covariations among certain categories of causal factors indicated strong positive or negative interactions that either added to or dampened the direct effects of these factors.
TI: Douglas-fir fall root phenology: a bioassay approach to defining planting windows.
AU: Dunsworth-BG; compiled (ed.); Worrall-J (ed.); Loo-Dinkins-J (ed.); Lester-DP
AD: MacMillan Bloedel Ltd., Nanaimo, BC, Canada.
SO: Proceedings, 10th North American Forest Biology Workshop, 'Physiology and genetics of reforestation', Vancouver, British Columbia, July 10-22, 1988. 1988, 295-307; 20 ref.
PB: University of British Columbia; Vancouver; Canada
PY: 1988
LA: English
AB: Natural seedling root phenology during the autumn and spring was observed in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] and western hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla] over several seasons on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. These observations were used to determine the soil climate conditions under which peak activity occurred. Mitotic indexing and total root tip counts were used to quantify root activity. Peak activity for both spring and autumn in both species could be reasonably bracketed by soil climate conditions of -1 bar soil tension and 4°C. The hypothetical planting window defined by these soil climate conditions was then tested with a series of timing of planting studies for Douglas fir (autumn) and western hemlock (spring) containerized stock. The results indicated that although quality of planting stock and the season following planting are influential, a 10 to 15% survival and growth advantage can be gained by planting within the hypothetical window.
TI: Fall-lifted Douglas-fir outperforming spring-lifted stock 13 years after planting.
AU: Sloan-JP
AD: Intermountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Boise, ID, USA.
SO: Tree-Planters'-Notes. 1989, 40: 3, 20-24; 17 ref.
PY: 1989
LA: English
AB: A study begun in 1972 showed that Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings lifted in mid-Nov. and stored overwinter outgrew those lifted in early March for 3 yr after planting. All seedlings were planted in early May 1983 on a S.-facing granitic slope in central Idaho. Remeasurements in 1985 showed that the autumn-lifted seedlings continued to grow faster than the spring-lifted seedlings. Some 20% of autumn-lifted trees were >10 ft tall compared with only 0.5% of spring-lifted trees.
TI: Nursery and field evaluation of compost-grown conifer seedlings.
AU: Coleman-M; Dunlap-J; Dutton-D; Bledsoe-C
AD: University of Washington, College of Forest Resources, Seattle, WA, USA.
SO: Tree-Planters'-Notes. 1987, 38: 2, 22-27; 10 ref.
PY: 1987
LA: English
AB: Seedlings of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), noble fir (Abies procera) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) were raised in beds that had been treated with 0, 2, 4 or 6 inches of compost (fir/hemlock sawdust and municipal sewage sludge, 3:1) at a nursery in Carson, Washington. In autumn 1983, the 2+0 stock was lifted, stored until spring 1984 and then planted out on Mt. St. Helens, Washington (Douglas fir), near Estacada, Oregon (noble fir) or E. of the Cascade crest near Leavenworth, Washington (ponderosa pine). Data are given on the ht., biomass and concn. of N, P, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni and Cd after 1 yr in the nursery beds and on the ht. and survival for 2 yr after planting. The responses of the seedlings to the compost, the immobilization of nutrients and the accumulation of heavy metals are discussed.
TI: Survival and growth of four Douglas-fir stock types 21 years after planting.
AU: Krumlik-GJ; Bergerud-W
AD: Research Branch, BC Ministry of Forests, Vancouver, BC V8W 3E7, Canada.
SO: Research-Note -British-Columbia-Ministry-of-Forests. 1985, No. 96, vi + 26 pp.; 12 ref.
PY: 1985
LA: English
AB: An experiment was established in 1962 near Lake Cowichan and Campbell River, British Columbia, to evaluate stock types of Pseudotsuga menziesii on N. and S. aspects and 3 preparation treatments (no burn, new burn, old burn). A report after 3 yr showed n.s.d. between 1+1 and 2+0 stocks in survival and growth; autumn-sown 1+0 stock had significantly lower survival and growth than 1+1 and 2+0 stocks and spring-sown 1+0 stock had the poorest performance. Differences in survival and ht. between stock types remained almost unchanged 18 yr later. Differences between burning treatments or between aspects were not significant.
TI: Carbon and nitrogen allocation patterns of Douglas-fir seedlings fertilized with nitrogen in autumn. II. Field performance.
AU: Margolis-HA; Waring-RH
AD: Dep. For. Sci., Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
SO: Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research. 1986, 16: 5, 903-909; 34 ref.
PY: 1986
LA: English
LS: French
AB: Douglas fir seedlings (2+0), unfertilized or fertilized with ammonium nitrate in Oct. 1983, were planted out in Feb. 1984 near Corvallis, Oregon. Rye grass was grown on half the plots to induce water stress during the typical summer drought. Sucrose was applied to soil around each seedling to stimulate microbial growth and thus to immobilize nitrogen in the microbial biomass and create nitrogen stress in Douglas fir. Fertilized seedlings had earlier budbreak, produced more shoot growth and had higher relative growth rates, net assimilation rates and leaf area ratios than unfertilized seedlings. Grass significantly increased predawn moisture stress in both fertilized and unfertilized seedlings by early Aug. By 3 Sep., unfertilized seedlings growing with grass were significantly more stressed than other seedlings. Fertilizer did not have a significant effect on concn. of free amino acids and total N at the end of the growing season, but grass competition affected both N and carbohydrate chemistry.
TI: Influence of fall fertilization and moisture stress on growth and field performance of container-grown Douglas-fir seedlings.
AU: Jopson-TM; Paul-JL; Landis-TD
AD: Cal Forest, Covelo, CA 95428, USA.
SO: In Proceedings: Western Forest Nursery Council - Intermountain Nurseryman's Association combined meeting, 14-16 Aug. 1984, Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. General-Technical-Report,-Intermountain-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service. 1985, No. INT-185, 14-19; 8 ref.
PY: 1985
LA: English
AB: Five fertilizer treatments (+NPK, -N, -P, -K and tap water) and 2 wilt treatments (wilt and nonwilt) were applied in the greenhouse. Growth of seedlings was measured at the nursery and during the first growing season after planting out. Seedling growth in the nursery, and growth and survival after planting were substantially reduced in treatments lacking nitrogen, and in the wilting treatment.
TI: Performance of three Douglas-fir stocktypes on a skeletal soil.
AU: Hobbs-SD; Wearstler-KA Jr.
AD: Sch. For., Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR, USA.
SO: Tree-Planters'-Notes. 1983, 34: 3, 11-14; 12 ref.
PY: 1983
LA: English
AB: Plug-1 bare rooted seedlings, initially grown in containers and transplanted to a nursery for 1 yr, 2-0 bare rooted seedlings and 1-0 plug stock were planted on a steep, severe site in the Siskiyon Mts., SW Oregon, in 1980. Height and diameter were recorded after planting and in the autumn in 1980 and 1981. Survival was 91% for 1-0 plug seedlings, 87% for plug-1 seedlings and 56% for 2-0 bare rooted stock. There were n.s.d. in height and diameter growth.
TI: Effect of date of cone collection and stratification period on germination and growth of Douglas-fir seeds and seedlings.
AU: Sorensen-FC
AD: PNWF&RES, USDA For. Serv., Corvallis, OR, USA.
SO: Research-Note,-Pacific-Northwest-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service. 1980, No. PNW-346, 11 pp.; 24 ref.
PY: 1980
LA: English
AB: Seeds collected from a stand at 275 m alt. in the Oregon Cascades (a) 6 wk before, and (b) 2 wk before assumed natural seed fall were stratified for up to 128 days at 3-4 deg C and germinated in the laboratory. Seedlings were planted out in a nursery bed and measured for 2 growing seasons: the mathematical relations between stratification and both seedling size and germination rate were studied. In (a), stratification for up to 30 days increased germination % whereas longer periods reduced it; in (b) stratification increased germination % throughout the range studied. The log-log relation between time to 50% of total germination and stratification period was linear for both (a) and (b). Total ht. of 1st-yr seedlings was linearly related to the log of stratification period, but only for (b): the effect was small, and disappeared by the end of the 2nd season. The increase in seedling size appears to be an effect of stratification on hypocotyl extension. From author's summary.
TI: Effects of controlled-release fertilizers on the shoot and root development of Douglas-fir seedlings.
AU: Carlson-WC; Preisig-CL
AD: For. Res. Div., Crown Zellerbach Corp., PO Box 368, Wilsonville, OR 97070, USA.
SO: Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research. 1981, 11: 2, 230-242; 27 ref.
PY: 1981
LA: English
LS: French
AB: Controlled-release fertilizers, applied to the root zone of 1+0 plug Douglas fir seedlings at planting, stimulated shoot and root growth in the following two growing seasons. Stem unit length was increased in the first growth flush after treatment, and a higher proportion of fertilized seedlings had a second growth flush that year. Fertilizing increased the number of needle primordia formed in the overwintered bud in the late summer and autumn of the 1st yr after treatment and increased the number of lateral buds formed the following spring, but did not affect the length of stem units elongated in the first growth flush of the 2nd yr after treatment. Shoot/root ratio was altered abnormally by fertilizing. Fertilizing increased the number and in some cases the diam. of lateral roots in the root system. Position of fertilizer placement did not alter root system symmetry in terms of the distribution of numbers of roots over 12 root zones. From authors' summary.
TI: The effect of wrenching on morphology and field performance of Douglas Fir and Loblolly Pine seedlings.
AU: Tanaka-Y; Walstad-JD; Borrecco-JE
AD: For. Res. Center, Weyerhaeuser Company, Centralia, WA, USA.
SO: Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research. 1976, 6: 4, 453-458; 11 ref.
PY: 1976
LA: English
LS: French
AB: Seedlings of Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus taeda were given wrenching treatments [cf. FA 34, 1632] in the nursery, and were planted out on various dates on sites with different slope and drainage characteristics. One-year-old Douglas Fir seedlings, given 6 wrenchings, had significantly greater root dry weights after 6 months in the nursery than controls that were undercut but not wrenched. Four-months-old Loblolly Pine seedlings, given one wrenching, had significantly lower shoot dry weights, i.e. a better shoot:root ratio, after 14 months in the nursery than controls that were neither undercut nor wrenched. Seedling survival of both species, one growing season after planting out, was significantly greater in wrenched seedlings than in controls. There was some interaction between wrenching and slope and between wrenching and soil moisture. Wrenching also extended by several weeks the autumn and spring planting periods for Loblolly Pine and the autumn planting period for Douglas Fir.
TI: Effects of rooting medium, container size cover and planting time on container-grown Douglas Fir seedlings.
AU: Karlsson-I; Kovats-M
SO: Research-Note,-British-Columbia-Forest-Service. 1974, No. 69, 20 pp.; 4 ref.
PY: 1974
LA: English
AB: Survival and growth of coastal Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings of high- and low-altitude provenances were studied at Lake Couichan, British Columbia, for two growing seasons in relation to the following treatments: two kinds of nursery cover (plastic tent and open platform); two sizes of container (Styro 2 and Styro 8); two growing media (peat/vermiculite and pure peat); and two planting seasons (autumn and spring). Spring-planted stock stored through the winter was exposed to temperature extremes. After one growing season in the nursery, seedlings raised in Styro 8 containers showed significantly better height and diameter growth, and shoot and root weight, when grown in peat than in peat/vermiculite. Germination and height growth were better in the plastic tent, but root development and root/shoot ratio were better on the open platform. After one growing season in the field, autumn-planted seedlings showed significantly better development, while seedlings grown in peat in Styro 8 and Styro 2 containers showed, respectively, better height and diameter growth and better survival than those grown in peat/vermiculite. Spring-planted seedlings suffered root damage during winter storage; this prevented a true assessment of the merits of spring vs. autumn planting.
TI: Survival comparisons of three fall and spring plantings of four coniferous species in northern Idaho.
AU: Sinclair-C; Boyd-RJ
SO: USDA-Forest-Service-Research-Paper,-Intermountain-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station. 1973, No. INT-139, 20 pp.; 7 ref.
PY: 1973
LA: English
AB: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, Picea engelmannii, Abies grandis (2+0 stock) and Larix occidentalis (1+0 stock) were planted on three dates in the autumn and three in the spring on N.- and S.-facing slopes for three consecutive years in northern Idaho. First-year survival of trees planted in the spring was generally better than that of trees planted in the autumn. It is suggested that the wide variations found in survival after autumn planting were influenced by species of tree, planting date and aspect of the planting site, and recommendations are made for improving the results when planting has to be done in autumn.
TI: Timber harvesting residue treatment: Part 1. Responses of conifer seedlings, soils and microclimate.
AU: Zabowski-D; Java-B; Scherer-G; Everett-RL; Ottmar-R
AD: College of Forest Resources, Box 352100, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
SO: Forest-Ecology-and-Management. 2000, 126: 1, 25-34; 18 ref.
PY: 2000
LA: English
AB: Timber harvesting residues have typically been burned within coniferous forest areas of the eastern Cascade Mountains of Washington State, USA. Concerns about air pollution and quantities of coarse woody debris have generated interest in alternative residue treatments that will clear areas for planting and still reduce fire hazard. A total of 6 residue treatments were compared (3 slash treatments where residues were burned - spring broadcast burning, fall broadcast burning, and piling and burning; and 3 treatments where residues were not burned - clearing, chopping, and pulling unmerchantable material), along with no slash treatment to determine the effects of alternative approaches on soils and seedlings. Slash-treatment effects on soil bulk density and temperature, air temperature, and seedling growth and survival were examined at 4 different sites in the eastern Cascade Mountains. Results show that seedling performance was best with spring broadcast burning across all sites over 5 yr of growth. Average height growth of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) over 5 yr was 90 cm in the spring broadcast burn, and 75, 72, 71, 71, 66 and 61 cm for no slash treatment, piling and burning, pulling unmerchantable material, chopping, fall broadcast burn, and clearing, respectively. Seedling height growth may be related to soil temperatures that are closer to optimal for root and shoot growth when large quantities of slash were not insulating the soil. Soil bulk density did not appear to affect seedling growth (bulk density ranged from 0.7 to 1.15 g cm-3). None of the slash treatments that avoided burning increased growth relative to no slash treatment, and some may have adversely affected survival. If slash burning cannot be used to reduce quantities of timber harvesting residues, then leaving slash untreated appears to be the best alternative for seedling growth. The second (following) paper (Scherer et al., pp. 35-50) reports the effect of residue treatment on understorey vegetation.
Improving Plantation Establishment by Optimizing Growth Capacity and Planting Time of Western Yellow Pine.
Jenkinson, J.L.
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, CA.
Report Number: FSRP-PSW-154. Nov. 1980. 32 pages.
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Seedlings of 27 sources of western yellow pines, selected in climates typical of the species, were raised in a nursery in the western Sierra Nevada. Seedling top and root growth capacities were periodically assessed during fall and winter, and field survivals of outplanted seedlings were evaluated in different climates with summer drought. In the nursery, four distinct, innate seasonal patterns of root growth capacity were defined in ponderosa pine from within and outside California, and two distinct patterns were defined in Jeffrey pine. Below snow line in the western Sierra Nevada, seedling survivals were higher in spring plantings than in a winter one, and for the California sources than for others. In spring plantings above snow line, survivals for diverse local sources of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines were uniformly high, both on the western slope and east of the Sierra Nevada crest.
Survival Comparisons of Three Fall and Spring Plantings of Four Coniferous Species in Northern Idaho.
Sinclair, C.; Boyd, R.J.
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Report Number: INT-139. 1973. 20 pages.
Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, Picea engelmannii, Abies grandis (2+0 stock) and Larix occidentalis (1+0 stock) were planted on three dates in the autumn and three in the spring on N. and S. facing slopes for three consecutive years in northern Idaho. First-year survival of trees planted in the spring was generally better than that of trees planted in the autumn. It is suggested that the wide variations found in survival after autumn planting were influenced by species of tree, planting date and aspect of the planting site, and recommendations are made for improving the results when planting has to be done in the autumn.